November 29, 1797:
Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti is born into abject poverty, at Via Borgo Canale 10 (now 14) in Bergamo, Cisalpine Republic, the fifth of six children born to Andrea Donizetti, a porter in a pawnshop, and Domenica Nava, a weaver.
May 6, 1806:
Johann Simon Mayr (42) opens his new music school, Lezioni Caritatevoli, in Bergamo, founded to provide musicians for the local church. Among the students is Gaetano Donizetti (8).
November 15, 1810:
Gaetano Donizetti (12) learns that he has been accepted to the Bergamo art school, Accademia Carrara. He applied because he fears he will be unsuccessful in music.
November 8, 1816:
A setting of the Tantum ergo by Gaetano Donizetti (18) for male chorus and orchestra is performed for the first time.
June 9, 1817:
Sinfonia concertanta by Gaetano Donizetti (19) is performed for the first time, in the Bologna Liceo.
June 19, 1817:
Concertino in G for english horn and orchestra by Gaetano Donizetti (19) is performed for the first time, in Bergamo.
November 14, 1818:
The first opera of Gaetano Donizetti (20) to be staged, the melodramma Enrico de Borgogna to words of Merelli, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Luca, Venice. The soprano faints from stage fright at the end of Act I and has to be replaced in Act III.
December 17, 1818:
Una follia, a farsa by Gaetano Donizetti (21) to words of Merelli, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Luca, Venice, to mixed reviews.
March 19, 1819:
The Sinfonia “L’incendio” by Gaetano Donizetti (21) is performed for the first time, in Bergamo.
December 26, 1819:
Il falegname di Livonia, o Petro il grande, czar delle Russie, an opera buffa by Gaetano Donizetti (22) to words of Bevilacqua-Aldobrandini after Duval, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Samuele, Venice.
January 28, 1822:
Zoraida di Granata, a melodramma eroico by Gaetano Donizetti (24) to words of Merelli, is performed for the first time, in the Teatro Argentina, Rome, to some success.
May 12, 1822:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (24) dramma La zingara to words of Tottola is performed for the first time, in the Teatro Nuovo, Naples. The composer will later remark that “the public was certainly not stingy with compliments.”
June 29, 1822:
La lettera anonima, a dramma per musica by Gaetano Donizetti (24) to words of Genoino, is performed for the first time, in Teatro del Fondo, Naples.
October 26, 1822:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (24) melodramma semiseria Chiara e Serafina, o Il pirata to words of Romani after Pixérécourt is performed for the first time, in Teatro alla Scala, Milan.
May 30, 1823:
Aristea, an azione pastorale by Gaetano Donizetti (25) to words of Schmidt, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
July 2, 1823:
Alfredo il grande, a dramma per musica by Gaetano Donizetti (25) to words of Tottola, is performed for the first and only time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
September 3, 1823:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (25) dramma giocoso Il fortunato inganno to words of Tottola is performed for the first time, in Teatro Nuovo, Naples. It will receive only two more performances.
February 4, 1824:
L’ajo nell’imbarazzo, a melodramma giocoso by Gaetano Donizetti (26) to words of Ferretti after Giraud, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Valle, Rome.
July 28, 1824:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (26) dramma semiseria Emiliá di Liverpool after Scatizzi is performed for the first time, in Teatro Nuovo, Naples.
November 24, 1824:
A Credo in D for chorus and orchestra by Gaetano Donizetti (26) is performed for the first time.
March 6, 1825:
I voti dei sudditi, an azione pastorale by Gaetano Donizetti (27) to words of Schmidt, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
March 15, 1825:
Gaetano Donizetti (27) is engaged as maestro di cappella at Teatro Carolino in Palermo.
May 4, 1825:
The opera season opens tonight in Palermo under its new director, Gaetano Donizetti (27). The orchestra plays so badly that Donizetti is called to account by the Superintendant of Public Spectacles.
August 14, 1825:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (27) Cantata for the King’s Birthday is performed for the first time, in Palermo.
January 7, 1826:
Alahor in Granata, a dramma by Gaetano Donizetti (28) is performed for the first time, in the Teatro Carolino, Palermo.
July 6, 1826:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (28) dramma Elvida to words of Schmidt is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples, before a royal gala. It is well received but has since disappeared.
January 7, 1827:
Olivo e Pasquale, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (29) to words of Ferretti after Sografi, is performed for the first time, in the Teatro Valle, Rome. The audience response is frigid.
May 13, 1827:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (29) opera romantica Otto mesi in due ore ossia Gli esiliati in Siberia to words of Gilardoni after Pixérécourt is performed for the first time, in Teatro Nuovo, Naples.
August 19, 1827:
Il borgomastro di Saardam, a melodramma giocoso by Gaetano Donizetti (29) to words of Gilardoni after Mélesville, Merle, and Boirie, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Nuovo, Naples. The audience is enthusiastic.
November 21, 1827:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (29) farsa Le convenienze teatrali to the composer’s words after Sografi is performed for the first time, in Teatro Nuovo, Naples to good success.
January 1, 1828:
L’esule di Roma ossia Il proscritto, a melodramma eroico by Gaetano Donizetti (30) to words of Gilardoni after Marchionni, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The audience grants it an enthusiastic reception.
April 7, 1828:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (30) Inno reale to words of Romani is performed for the first time, for the inauguration of Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa. The first production in the new theatre is the premiere of Bianca e Fernando (second version), a melodramma by Vincenzo Bellini (26) also to words of Romani after Gilardoni after Roti. See 30 May 1826.
May 12, 1828:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (30) melodramma Alina, regina di Golconda to words of Romani after Sedaine is performed for the first time, in Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa.
June 1, 1828:
Gaetano Donizetti (30) marries Virginia Vasselli in the church of Santa Maria a Via, Rome. She is the daughter of a respected Vatican lawyer.
August 2, 1828:
Gianni di Calais, a melodramma semiseria by Gaetano Donizetti (30) to words of Gilardoni after d’Arlincourt, is performed for the first time, in Teatro del Fondo, Naples to a warm reception by the audience.
January 12, 1829:
Il paria, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (31) to words of Gilardoni after Delavigne, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
February 26, 1829:
Il giovedi grasso o Il nuovo Pourceaugnac, a farsa by Gaetano Donizetti (31) to words of Gilardoni, is performed for the first time, in Teatro del Fondo, Naples.
July 6, 1829:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (31) melodramma Elisabetta al castello di Kenilworth to words of Tottola after Hugo and Scribe after Scott is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
August 11, 1829:
The first child of Gaetano Donizetti (31) dies in Rome at the age of 13 days.
December 20, 1829:
Il genio dell’armonia for solo voices and chorus by Gaetano Donizetti (32) to words of Visconti, is performed for the first time, in Rome, to honor Pope Pius VIII.
February 6, 1830:
I pazzi per progetto, a farsa by Gaetano Donizetti (32) to words of Gilardoni, is performed for the first time, in Teatro del Fondo, Naples. The work scores a success.
March 6, 1830:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (32) azione tragico-sacra Il diluvio universale to words of Gilardoni after Byron and Ringhieri is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The production does not go well, largely due to staging problems.
September 5, 1830:
Imelda de’ Lambertazzi, a melodramma tragico by Gaetano Donizetti (32) to words of Tottola, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
December 26, 1830:
Gaetano Donizetti's (33) tragedia lirica Anna Bolena to words of Romani after Pindemonte and Pepoli is performed for the first time, in Teatro Carcano, Milan. Of the unusually warm reception Donizetti writes, “success, triumph, delirium.” A traveling Russian, Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (26), will remember “The performance was like magic for me.”
January 24, 1831:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (33) Cantata for the Wedding of Ferdinand of Austria is performed for the first time, in Milan.
January 31, 1831:
Gaetano Donizetti (33) leaves Milan for Rome. He will find the city in turmoil.
May 30, 1831:
Francesca di Foix, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (33) to words of Gilardoni after Favart and Saint-Amans, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
June 18, 1831:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (33) opera buffa La romanziera e l’uomo nero to words of Gilardoni is performed for the first time, in Teatro del Fondo, Naples.
January 12, 1832:
Fausta, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (34) to words of Gilardoni and the composer, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The work scores a major success.
March 13, 1832:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (34) tragedia lirica Ugo, conte di Parigi to words of Romani after Bis, is performed for the first time, in Teatro alla Scala, Milan. It will receive only four performances.
May 12, 1832:
L’elisir d’amore, a melodramma giocoso by Gaetano Donizetti (34) to words of Romani after Scribe, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Canobbiana, Milan. The work scores an immediate success.
November 4, 1832:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (34) tragedia lirica Sancia di Castiglia to words of Salatino is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. It is given a warm reception, but will soon disappear.
January 2, 1833:
Il furioso nell’isola di San Domingo, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (35) to words of Ferretti after an anonymous play on the Don Quixote story, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Valle, Rome. It is an immediate success.
March 17, 1833:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (35) melodramma Parisina, to words of Romani after Byron is performed for the first time, at Teatro della Pergola, Florence to an enthusiastic reception.
June 13, 1833:
Il fato, a cantata by Gaetano Donizetti (35) to words of Ferretti composed for the name day of Count Lozano, is performed for the first time, in Rome.
July 26, 1833:
A cantata for the name day of Anna Carnevali by Gaetano Donizetti (35) is performed for the first time, in Rome.
September 9, 1833:
Torquato Tasso, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (35) to words of Ferretti, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Valle, Rome to a warm reception.
December 26, 1833:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (36) melodramma Lucrezia Borgia to words of Romani after Hugo is performed for the first time, at Teatro alla Scala, Milan. Both audience and critics give the work lukewarm approval.
February 27, 1834:
Rosmonda d’Inghilterra, a melodramma serio by Gaetano Donizetti (36) to words of Romani, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Pergola, Florence.
October 18, 1834:
Buondelmonte, a tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti (36) to words of Salatino, is performed for the first time, at Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The opera was to have been Maria Stuarda but when the censors objected to the tragic ending two weeks ago, Salatino took the libretto of Bardari and rewrote it. Donizetti then quickly fit his music to the new words. Needless to say, the production is a disaster and receives only one performance. See 30 December 1835.
December 26, 1834:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (37) tragedia lirica Gemma di Vergy to words of Bidèra after Dumas is performed for the first time, in Teatro alla Scala, Milan.
December 31, 1834:
Gaetano Donizetti (37) leaves Milan for Paris where he hopes to produce an opera at the Théâtre-Italien.
March 12, 1835:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (37) tragedia lirica Marino Faliero to words of Bidèra after Delavigne is performed for the first time, at the Théâtre-Italien, Paris. The work is accorded a good, if not overwhelming reception.
March 25, 1835:
Gaetano Donizetti (37) leaves Paris after modest success to return to Naples.
September 26, 1835:
Lucia di Lammermoor, a dramma tragico by Gaetano Donizetti (37) to words of Cammarano after Scott, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The composer reports that “It has pleased, and pleased very much.”
December 30, 1835:
The original version of Maria Stuarda, a tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti (38) to words of Bardari after Schiller, is performed for the first time, at Teatro alla Scala, Milan. The lead soprano, Maria Felicita Malibran, carries through even though ill. Unfortunately, it shows. See 18 October 1834.
January 12, 1836:
After the sixth performance of Maria Stuarda by Gaetano Donizetti (38), Rainer, Archduke of Austria, the Austrian governor of Lombardy bans the work owing to profanity and other abominations contained therein.
February 2, 1836:
A French government decree is issued creating Gaetano Donizetti (38) a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor.
February 4, 1836:
Belisario, a tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti (38) to words of Cammarano after von Schenk translated by Marchionni, is performed for the first time, at Teatro La Fenice, Venice. The work is well received.
June 1, 1836:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (38) melodramma giocoso Il campanello di notte to words of the composer after Brunswick, Troin, and Lhérie is performed for the first time, at Teatro Nuovo, Naples, to a good reception.
August 21, 1836:
Betly, ossia La capanna svizzera, a dramma giocosa by Gaetano Donizetti (38) to his own words after Scribe and Mélesville, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Nuovo, Naples.
November 19, 1836:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (38) dramma lirico L’assedio di Calais to words of Cammarano after DuBelloy is performed for the first time, at Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The work, produced for the name day of the Neapolitan queen mother, is well received.
February 18, 1837:
Pia de’ Tolomei, an tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti (39) to words of Cammarano after Sestini and Dante, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Apollo, Venice. It gets a mixed reception.
July 30, 1837:
Virginia Donizetti, wife of Gaetano Donizetti (39) dies in Naples of unknown causes. She apparently suffered puerperal fever after giving birth 13 June then became very ill. The baby survived only an hour. Because of the current cholera epidemic in Naples, her earthly remains are buried today.
August 31, 1837:
La preghiera di un popolo, a hymn by Gaetano Donizetti (39) for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples.
October 28, 1837:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (39) tragedia lirica Roberto Devereux, ossia Il conte di Essex to words of Cammarano after Ancelot is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The composer reports that “it went very, very well indeed.”
November 28, 1837:
Messa di Gloria by Gaetano Donizetti for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra is performed for the first time, on the eve of the composer’s 40th birthday.
January 30, 1838:
Maria di Rudenz, a dramma tragico by Gaetano Donizetti (40) to words of Cammarano after Bourgeois, Cuvelier, and de Mallian, is performed for the first time, in Teatro La Fenice, Venice. The audience reaction is so poor that the work receives only one more performance.
September 26, 1838:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (40) opera seria Poliuto, already in production, is banned by the King of Naples because its subject is a saint. See 30 November 1848.
September 10, 1839:
Gianni di Parigi, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (41) to words of Romani after Saint-Just, is performed for the first time, at Teatro alla Scala, Milan. The critics are not impressed.
February 11, 1840:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (42) opéra comique La fille du régiment to words of Saint-Georges and Bayard is performed for the first time, by the Opéra-Comique, Paris. Donizetti’s French rivals, jealous of his Paris success, organize a hostile reception.
April 10, 1840:
Les Martyrs, a grand opéra by Gaetano Donizetti (42) to words of Scribe, is performed for the first time, in the Paris Opéra. The work, which is a second version of the composer’s Poliuto, is given a lukewarm reception.
December 2, 1840:
La favorite, an opéra by Gaetano Donizetti (43) to words of Royer and Vaëz after d’Arnaud, is performed for the first time, in the Paris Opéra. The initial response of the audience is a trifle frosty.
December 14, 1840:
Gaetano Donizetti (43) leaves Paris for Rome.
January 9, 1841:
Richard Wagner (27) dedicates his arrangement of the vocal score of Gaetano Donizetti’s (43) La Favorita to Giacomo Meyerbeer (49).
February 11, 1841:
Adelia, o La figlia dell’arciere, a melodramma serio by Gaetano Donizetti (43) to words of Romani and Marini after an anonymous French play, is performed for the first time, in Teatro Apollo, Rome. It is a fiasco. The theatre is oversold and those not admitted begin a riot. At one point, the performance has to be stopped. The impresario, Vincenzo Jacovacci, is arrested and detained overnight.
March 2, 1841:
Gaetano Donizetti (43) arrives back in Paris from Rome.
June 14, 1841:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (43) cantata Dalla Francia un saluto t’invia for solo voices, chorus, orchestra, and piano is performed for the first time, in Bergamo for the 78th birthday of Simon Mayr.
December 26, 1841:
Maria Padilla, a melodramma by Gaetano Donizetti (44) to words of Rossi and the composer after Ancelot, is performed for the first time, in Teatro alla Scala, Milan.
March 10, 1842:
On the way from Milan to Bologna, Gaetano Donizetti (44), who has been silent during the trip, suddenly shouts, “Oh, that Nabucco! Beautiful! Beautiful! Beautiful!” to the amazement of his companions.
March 18, 1842:
Gioachino Rossini’s (50) Stabat mater is performed for the first time in Italy at the Archiginnassio in Bologna, directed by Gaetano Donizetti (44) in the presence of the composer. It is an unqualified triumph. After the last rehearsal, 500 people followed Rossini to his house shouting their approval.
March 27, 1842:
Gaetano Donizetti (44) arrives in Vienna from Bologna.
May 19, 1842:
Linda di Chamounix, a melodramma semiserio by Gaetano Donizetti (44) to words of Rossi after D’Ennery and Lemoine, is performed for the first time, in the Vienna Kärntnertortheater, directed by the composer. At the end, Donizetti is called out 17 times.
May 28, 1842:
Gaetano Donizetti (44) is invited to become an honorary member of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.
July 13, 1842:
Gaetano Donizetti (44) receives notification, in Milan, that he is appointed Hofkapellmeister to the Emperor of Austria.
September 6, 1842:
Gaetano Donizetti (44) leaves Naples for Paris.
December 23, 1842:
The artistic elite of Paris gather at the Hôtel L’Empire to bid farewell to Giacomo Meyerbeer (51) the night before he departs for Berlin. Among those present are Frédéric Chopin (32), Gaetano Donizetti (45), Adolphe Adam (39), and Heinrich Heine. Those sending messages include George Sand, Eugéne Scribe and Daniel Auber (60).
January 3, 1843:
Don Pasquale, a dramma buffo by Gaetano Donizetti (45) to words of Ruffini and the composer after Anelli, is performed for the first time, in the Théâtre-Italien, Paris. The work enjoys a thundering success.
January 7, 1843:
Gaetano Donizetti (45) leaves Paris for Vienna to produce Don Pasquale there.
June 5, 1843:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (45) melodramma tragico Maria di Rohan to words of Cammarano after Lockroy and Badon, is performed for the first time, in the Vienna Kärntnertortheater. The imperial family comes from the country especially for this production. Donizetti writes, “everything went well, everything, everything.”
November 13, 1843:
Dom Sébastien, roi de Portugal, an opéra by Gaetano Donizetti (45) to words of Scribe after Foucher, is performed for the first time, at the Paris Opéra.
December 30, 1843:
Gaetano Donizetti (46) arrives in Vienna from Paris. By this time he is taking digitalis on doctor’s orders. His Vienna doctors prescribe baths and applications of boiling mustard to the neck.
January 18, 1844:
Caterina Cornaro, a tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti (46) to words of Sacchèro after Saint-Georges, is performed for the first time, at Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The audience reaction is hostile and the work receives only six performances.
July 10, 1845:
Gaetano Donizetti (47) leaves Vienna for the last time, heading for Paris.
August 9, 1845:
After Gaetano Donizetti (47) falls on the street outside his Paris hotel and is brought unconscious to his room, a meeting of three doctors prescribes a change of scene and no composing. His disease is not in doubt.
January 28, 1846:
After a consultation of doctors arranged by Andrea Donizetti (the composer’s nephew) in Paris, they find Gaetano Donizetti (48) suffering from “cerebro-spinal degeneration of syphilitic origin,” and they recommend that he be placed in an institution.
February 1, 1846:
Gaetano Donizetti (48) is taken from his Paris hotel by his servant, nephew, and Dr. Philippe Ricard (a specialist in venereal disease) and held against his will at a sanitorium in Ivry, near Paris. His disease is advanced but he seems, at first, to be aware that he is “imprisoned.” Donizetti will stay here for 17 months.
September 7, 1846:
Gaetano Donizetti’s (48) nephew Andrea, having exhausted all attempts to move his uncle to Bergamo, leaves Paris for Italy.
August 17, 1847:
Six doctors convened by Andrea Donizetti examine Gaetano Donizetti (49) in his Paris apartment. Four think he can be moved, two do not.
August 27, 1847:
The gendarmes posted yesterday by the Prefect of Police refuse to allow Gaetano Donizetti (49) to take his daily drive.
April 1, 1848:
Gaetano Donizetti (50) suffers a seizure that paralyzes his arms and left leg and locks his teeth. This will subside in the morning.
April 4, 1848:
Gaetano Donizetti (50) suffers yet another seizure, for an hour. He is administered the Last Rites of the Roman Catholic Church.
April 8, 1848:
17:00 Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti dies in the Palazzo Basoni, Bergamo, Austrian Empire, of meningovascular syphilis, aged 50 years, four months, and ten days.
April 11, 1848:
The city of Bergamo gives an elaborate funeral for its most famous son, Gaetano Donizetti. Eight doctors perform an autopsy in the toolshed of the Valtesse Cemetery and the earthly remains of the composer are then placed in the vault of the Pezzoli family. (In 1875, the remains will be moved to the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo)
November 30, 1848:
Poliuto, a tragedia lirica by Gaetano Donizetti (†0) to words of Cammarano after Corneille, is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples. The previously censored work is produced owing to decreased censorship during the constitutional period. See 26 September 1838.
May 7, 1860:
Rita, ou Le mari battu, an opéra comique by Gaetano Donizetti (†12) to words of Vaëz, is performed for the first time, at the Théatre Favart, Paris.
October 23, 1860:
Louis Moreau Gottschalk (31) conducts an opera for the first time, Les Martyrs of Gaetano Donizetti (†12), in the Teatro Principal, Havana. Reviewers call the performance “abysmal” although not blaming Gottschalk.
November 29, 1869:
On the 72nd anniversary of the composer’s birth, the first version of Gaetano Donizetti’s (†21) tragedia lirica Gabriella di Vergy to words of Tottola after Du Belloy is performed for the first time, in Teatro San Carlo, Naples, 43 years after it was composed. The work has been considerably altered for this production.
September 23, 1943:
World War II: The Red Army occupies Poltava and Unecha, southwest of Bryansk.
French troops occupy Bonifacio, Corsica.
Benito Mussolini proclaims the Italian Social Republic in northern Italy.
The Italian merchant ship Gaetano Donizetti, now under German control and carrying 1,600 Italian prisoners from Rhodes to Germany, is sunk by a British destroyer in the Aegean. Everyone on board goes down with the ship.
October 13, 1960:
Il pigmalione, a scena drammatica by Gaetano Donizetti (†112), is performed for the first time, in the Teatro Donizetti, Bergamo. It was the composer’s first stage work, written during his student days in 1816.
November 9, 1978:
The second version of Gabriella di Vergy, an opera by Gaetano Donizetti (†130) to words of unknown hands, is performed for the first time, in Whitla Hall, Belfast approximately 140 years after it was composed.
May 5, 1984:
The three-act opera Elisabeth by Gaetano Donizetti (†136) is found as a result of discoveries in London and Paris.